Legally Chic....

Flexibility Chapter 10

2009-08-09T10:00:00.000-07:00

The four primary steps in designing a formal, comprehensive execise program. 1. Medical\health screening
2. Physical fitness training
3. Selection of exercise mode
4. Design of an exercise program for total fitness

Exercise programs designed to develop physical fitness and those focused on health and the prevention of disease.

The comprehensive approach to physical fitness involves three major components—cardiorespiratory fitness, muscularskeletal fitness, and body composition are given balanced attention.

The three sets of standards for the ACSM include.

Cardiorespiratory exercising 3-5 times per week 20-60 minutes working the large muscle groups. 12 -16 RPE

Resistance training 2-3 times per week, intensity volitional fatigue or 2-3 reps before 16 RPM, one set of 3-20 reps, 8-10 exercises that include all major muscle groups

Flexibility minimal 2-3: ideal 5-7 times per week, stretch to tightness at the end of the range of motion, but not to pain. Duration 15-30 seconds, 2-4 reps per stretch, static stretch all major muscle groups.

The biggest challenge you face as a personal trainer is motivating clients to adhere to their exercise program. Principles of adherence and motivation. Individualized programs designed by intensity, and mode to fit the clients needs and personal goals. Overall fitness or those seeking major fitness mprovements.

The healthy people 2010 objects to increase physical activity in adults goals is to get the population over 18 years of age to emphasize daily exercise.
Push for vigorous exercise, reduce society’s inactivivty levels, promote muscular strenght training and endurance, to enhance flexiblity.

An outline of a basic exercise program for stress management recommends the frequency of training is maintained 3-5 days of the week, perferably daily. Intensity of training would be 60-80 maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max), 60-80% of maximum heart-rate reserve, or 70-90 maximum heart rate. Duration of training should include 20-60 minutes of continous aerobic activity, limited data is supplied refering to anaerobic strenght training on stress. Mode of training any aerobic activities that the participant finds enjoyable, walking, running, stair climbing, cyclying, swimming, hiking)

STEP 1: The four steps in establishin an exercise program include medical/health screening including background, meds, motivation, goals, a comprehensive questionnaire. Addressing risk factors and symptoms , present medications and treatment also known as risk stratification to ensure the safety of clients. Each year about 75,000 suffer heart attacks during or after exercise.
STEP 2: Physical fitness testing to assess current fitness leves and establish a baseline. TO indentify special needs for individual counseling, to evaluate progress over time, to motivate and educate.

STEP 3: Selection of the aerobic exercise mode. If frequency, duration and intensity are similar. 70% of heart rate reserve improvement is a adequate goal. Designing workouts that are suited to the clients preferences also flexible enough to incorporate into busy schedules. To ensure compliance group aerobic and team sports may benefit the client. Most popular means of aerobic fitness continues to be walking.

STEP 4: Designing an exercise program for total fitness: A program that addresses cardio respiratory fitness, muscular strengh and endurance, flexibilty and body compostion. Exercise forms are divided into two stages Cardiorespiratory/body composition and musculo-skeletal fitness.

Good traits of a personal trainer and coach include:
Empathy being able to climb into the world of the client and communicate feelings of understanding.
Respect- a deep and genuine appreciation for the worth of your clients, separate and apart from their behavior.
Warmth-the communication of concern and appropriate affection
Genuineness- being freely one’s self and sincere and not just playing a role.
Concreteness-essential ideas and elements are ferreted out.
Self-disclosure—revelations about self are shared at the appropriate time for the benefit of the clinent.
Potency and self-actualization---one is dynamic, in command, conveys feelings of trust and warmth, competent, creative, satisfiyed, productive, serene.

The three progressions stages are defined by the
Intial conditioning stage last from four to six weeks training slow builds up to reduce chances of muscle soreness, discomfort and discouragement.
Improvement conditioning training lasts from weeks 8- 20 and progression is more rapid. Over 300 calories are burned per session. Remeasure results every 3 months to encourage continuation and stay in the game.
Maintenance conditioning stage once the desired level of fitness is reached, this stage begins usually 5-6 months .

SEVEN stages of adherence to stay interested in fitness include
1. Encourage group participation
2. Minimize muscularskeletal injuries with a moderate exercise intensity and progression
3. Helping your clients draw upon reasonable goals and highlighting these in a contract.
4. Emphasizing variety and enjoyment into the exercise program.
5. Recruiting support from a spouse or significant other.
6. Providing progress charts to document achievements of goals.
7. Recognizing accomplishments through a system of rewards.

CASE #1
A middle age female, clients home.
Age:45
Height: 5’4”
Weight: 154
Desired weight: 130
Quit smoking 5 years ago
Exercise habit: sedentary at work
Family history of disease: father passed on CAD
Personal goals: lose weigth, improve appearance and muscle tonem decrease the risk of heart disease
Body percentage fat: 35% obese
Classified as a moderate risk because of two or more coronary risk factors (family history, hypertension, hypercholesterolmia, sedentary lifestyle)
Recommended brisk walking, indoor stationary bicycle. Supported with calistenics.
Weight loss about 1 pund per week and ideal body weight should bet attained with in 24-30 weeks. Improvements in dietary quality will incorporate less saturated fat, and cholesterol, more fruits, veggies, and whole grains, with limited sodium and alcohol consumption. Long term support goals, family support and contracting, establishing rewards for attainment of goals and combating time obstacles.

CASE 2:
30 yr old male
70 inches
160 pounds
175 pounds
Never smoked
Plays golf
Goals; increased muscle weight through weight-traing program; improve aerobic fitness moderately
“low-risk client” strenght training 3 days per week and aerobic 2 days per week.
During the first month a one set 10 repetition maximum RM of 10 different exercises without undue fatigue and soreness. Over the next two to three months gradually increase the sets to three with the RM lowered from 6-8. On two days per weak the client can use the rowing machine 20-30 minutes.
Establish 1 RM for each exercise and retest every 3 months. To ensure a healthy weight gain a dietian is recommended for bulk.

CASE #3
Elederly male 72 years old
Clients home
68 inches
200 pounds
175 pounds
Walks 10 minutes after dinner
Type 2 diabetes
Goals lose weight to help control diabetes, improve aerobic fitnes and increase energy level, increase muscle strenght moderately.
“high risk client because of recent diagnosis with diabetes, high risk for coronary heart disease and attainment of normal serum cholesterol and HDL cholesterol is a goal.
Walking with muscle calistenics and walking for 5-10 minutes followed by 15 minutes of walking at 40-50% heart rate reserve. After first month graduallly increase duration of walking for 10-15 minutes.

Muscular Strenght and Endurance Chapter 8

2009-08-09T03:29:00.000-07:00

Chapter 8

Are muscles are unique in our ability to relax, contract, and produce force. The muscles are highly responsive to training stimuli. With appropriate exercise the muscles become stronger and larger.

Strenght training is the process of exercising with progressively heavier resistance for the purpose of strengthening the muscularskeletal system.

The positive results include
· Increased muscle fiber size
· Increased muscle contractile strenght
· Increased tendon tensile strenght
· Increased bone strenght
· Increased ligament tensile strenght

Physical capacity may be defined as one’s ability to perform exercise or work.

Research shows that after 2 months of strenght training that men and women normally gain 2-4 lbs of muscle and can increase 40-60% of strenght.

Unfortunately after 25 we lose more than one-half pound of muscle every year if we don’t perform regular strenght exercise.

While we sleep skeletal muscles burn 25% of calories. The gradual loss of muscle tissue in nontraining adults leads to a 5% reduction in metabolic rate every decade of life.

Balanced muslce development reduces the rick of overuse injuries that may occur when one muscle group os much stronger, jogging produces more stress on the posterior leg muscle than the anterior leg muscles.

4 out of 5 Americans experience lower-back discomfort, 80% of low-back problems are muscular in nature and appear to be preventable by strengthening the low-back muscles

Isometric contraction is when the muscular force is equal to the resistive force, there is no movement. Also is most representative of one’s actual strenght procuction.

Concentric contraction is when the muscular force is greater than the resistive force, the muscle shortens, resulting in a positive contraction. Not as strong as isometric because of internal muscle friction decreases the effective force output by about 20%.

Eccentric muscle is when the muscle force is less that the resistive force, the muscle lengthens, resulting from a negative contraction. Lowering weights.

Prime mover muscles are principally responsible for a given joint movement. Such as the biceps concentric lifting phase and eccentrical lowering phase of the bicep curl exercise.

Antagonist muscles produce the opposite of joint movement. For example the triceps muscle responsible for elbow extension serve as the antagonists to the biceps muscle. Help produce smooth and controlled joint movements.

Stabilizer muscles stabilize one joint so that the desired movement can occur at another joint. An example would be the biceps curl exercise, the pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi muscles contract isometrically to stabilize the shoulder joint so the elbow can move.

Slow-twitch type one muscles are best suited for aerobic energy utilization and can provide relatively low levels of force for relatively long periods of time. The longer fast twitch type 2 muscle fibers are best anaerobic energy utilization and can produce relatively high levels of force for short periods of time.

A motor unit consists of about 100 muscle fibers, and a typical fast twitch motor unit contains about 500 muscle fibers.

The all or none priciple is when all of the muscle fibers in a motor unit maximally contract simultaneously.

The motor unit learning effect is when much of the performance improvement during the initial weeks of strenght training is due to more efficient motor unit utilization.

Muscle soreness: A more lasting form of muscle discomfort is known as delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) This is experienced 24-48 hours following a demanding strenght training session.

The factors that affect our strenght performance include gender, age, limb length, muscle length, tendon insertion, and muscle fiber type.

Men and women can increase their muscle size and muscle strenght through progressive strenght training.

World class power weightlifters have more fast-twitch muscle fibers.

Muscle strenght is one’s ability to perform a single repition with maximum .

Muscle endurance is one’s ability to perform many repitions with a sub-maximum resistance.

For the maximum lift a person can perform 10 reps at 75% and increase with time.

High percentages of fast twitch muscle fibers (low endurance fibers) perform fewer repetitions.

Genetics largely determines our muscle endurance. People with more slow-twitch muscle fibers are able to perform high endurance muscle lifts.

The four categories of strenght training include. Isometric resistance, isokinectic resistance, dynamic constant resistance and dynamic variable resistance.
Isometric (static) equipment is frequently used for testing muscle strength, seldom used for developing muscle strenght. May restrict blood flow and may trigger unacceptable increases in blood pressure. Advatages include little amount of equipment, low cost. Disadvantages monotomy and lack of performanc e feed back. Example pushing and static weight holding.

Isokinetic Equipment characterized by a constant movement speed and a matching resistive force, that is the amount of muscle force applied determines the amount of resistive force encountered. The advantages include accomodating resistance forces, speed regulationm detailed performance feedback, and reduced muscle soreness.

Dynamic constant resistance equipment …example barbells. Advantages low cost of equipment, variety of training movements, tangible evidence of improvement, and easy accessability. Disadvantages include the inability to train through a full range of joint motion in some exercises and inconsistent matching of resistive forces and muscular forces throughout the exercise movements.

Dynamic isotonic variable resistance equipment – resistive forces change throughout the exercise. Is provided by specially designed weight stack equipment . Advatages include the ability to train through a full range of motion on most exercises, reasonably consistent matching of resistive forces throughout the exercise movements and in most cases, tangible evidence of improvement. Disadvantages include equipment expense and lack of accesibility.

Strenght training
Exercise Selection is important to select exercise for each major muscle group. Training only a few can lead to muscular imbalance and risk injury.

The major muscle groups include the quadriceps, hamstrings, hip adductors, hip abductors, low-back, abdominals, pectoralis major, rhomboids, trapezious, latimmus dorsi, deltoids, biceps, triceps, neck flexors, and neck extensors. Other muscle groups that need to be trained include the gluteals, obliques, gastrocnemius, anterior tibialis, forearm flexors, and forearm extensors.

Exercise speed contolled muscle movements are important to reduce internal friction. A recommendation is one to two seconds for concentric lifting movements and 3-4 seconds for the lowering eccentric movement.

Exercise sets similar strenght gains from 1-3 sets. Clients who perform single sets ususal max. until muscle failure…high-intensity training. Those who chose multiple sets typically rest 1-3 minutes in between. Multiple sets burn more calories.

Exercise resistance and repetitions 8-12 repetitions with 70%-80% of maximum resistance is a sound training recommendation for safe and productive strenght development.

Exercise range is important to perform each exercise movement, with emphasis on the completely contracted position, full range are advantageous for strengthening the prive mover muscles and for streching the antagonist muscles.

Exercise progression is the gradual increase of weight. If the client can do 8 then progress to 12 the weight is increased by 5%

Exercise Frequency high-intensity resistance exercise may produce tissue microtrauma that temorarily reduces strenght output and causes varying degrees of muscle soreness. This is why ample rest time between training sessions is important. During recovery the muscles synthesize proteins and build slightly higher levels of strenght, Muscles rebuilding process typically requires about 48 hours, strenght workouts should be scheduled on an every other day basis.

Some common training mistakes are related to exercise technique. The tendency to use to much resistence typically results in poor form which decreases the training stimulus and increases the injury risk. Rebounding weights.

We warm up to prepare the body physiologically and psychologically for higher levels of effort and energy utilzation. Warm-ups can take make routines it can be helpful to start with stationary biking or stair climbing. It is very important to stretch the major muscles paying particular attention to the lower back area. Cool –downs are importants to prevent blood pooling. Easy cycling and walking are appropriate cool down activities last 5-10 minutes.
Circuit training is a form of strenght training in which the client performs a series of strenght exercises with little rest between exercise stations. 10-12 station completed generally in 20-25 minutes

Pylometric training also is known as jump training , invovles streching the muscles prior to contracting them. To develop strenght and power. They based evidence on streching muscles prior to contracting them recruits the myotatic reflex, or strecht reflex, of a muscle to enhance the power of contraction.

To spot for a bench press and incline press, you should stand behind the bench ready to grasp the barbell and help lift it back to the standards when needed.

When the muscles are not used in an absence of strenght training the muscles gradually become smaller and weaker (atropy). Without careful attention to diet muscle loss turns into fat gain and changes in body composition occur, physical capacity decline and personal appearance goes downhill.

1-2 workouts per week are able to maintain muscle form.

Too much protein supplementation is not recommended because mostly all of muscle is made up of water composing 75-80% and only 20% protein. The typical diet for a 175 pound adult only requires 80 grams of protein per day. That is 1 gram of protein per 2.2 pounds of body-weight.

Less than 3oz. Of protein daily. Protein consumption in excess can be harmful because it must be broken down metabolically.

Anabolic steriods are synthesized derivatives of the male sex hormone testosterone and are taken to increase muscle size and strenght, When combined with exercise , anabolic steriods may enhance protein synthesis and the tissue building process.

Consequences of steriod use include increased blood pressure , decreased levels of HDL, liver enzyme leakage, liver cancer, testicle atrophy, sterility, breast shrinkage, and uncontrolled mood swings from depression to aggression.

Strategies in overcoming the strenght plateau include training frequency or taking rest periods, training exercises should be routinuely changed to target different muscles, training sets should be varied, resistance/repititions .

Periodization to enhance strenght building, first month 12-16 repitions, second month 8 to 12 repitions and third month sets of 4- 8 reps.

Assisted training is similar to breakdown training, in that the resistance is reduced in accordance with the muscle’s momentary strenght capacity. A partner helps the client perform two or three post fatigue repetitions. By not receiving assistance during the lowering stages this emphasizes the eccentric muscle contractions.

Breakdown training means that sometimes the training stimulus must be intensified to maximize muscle development. Breakdown training is one means of recruiting additional muscle fibers during an exercise set. For example after muscle fatigue the ability by reducing the load helps the client work in a few more lifts.

Negative training may be useful for increasing musclar strenght. Must be carefully controlled to prevent injury.

Slow training means slower lifting speeds. 10 seconds for lifting and 4 seconds for lowering.
Exercise recording is helpful and effective when helping a client maintain a consistent training schedule. One of the best ways to motivate each other is performance feedback, especially when information is shared in a personal and positive manner. Encouragement and positive reinforcement are highly motivational for beginners who may be unsure of themselves. The most important motivation is the strenght –fitness model. Your physical appearance, training regularity, exercise technique, and personal attitude pervide an example that can enhance the client’s enthusiasm.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Exercise Chapter 7

2009-08-09T03:05:00.001-07:00

Cardiorespiratory fitness improves cardiovascular health in both primary and secondary prevention. Describes the health and function of the heart, lungsm and circulatory system and is related cardiovasculaar endurance. Also describes the capacity of the lungs to exchange oxygen and carry carbon dioxide with the blood and the circulatory's system to deliver nutrients to metabolically active tissues without fatigue.

Aerobic endurance activites have been effective in other conditioning and clinical therapies, such as cardiac and pulmonary rehabilitationm sleep disorder treatment, diabetic treatment, prenatal and post partum, renal dialysis conditioning, anxiety and depression management programs

Health benefits
reduction in blood pressure
increased good HDL cholesterol
decreased total cholesterol
decreased body fat stores
increased aerobic work capacity
decreased symptoms of anxiety, tension, and depression
reduction in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion
increased heart function
reduction in mortality in postmyocardial patients
prevention of type 2 diabetes
Adaptive physiological responses
increased lactate threshold
decreased resting heart rate
increased heart volume
increased resting and maximum stroke volume
increased maximum cardiac output
increased maximum oxygen consumption
increased capillary density and blood flow to active muscles
increased total blood volume
increased maximal ventilation
increased ling diffusion capacity
increased mobilzation and utilization of fat
reduced all cause mortality
decreased anxiety and depression
decreased incident of some cancers
improved arterial endothelial function
increased insulin sensitivity

Essential components of the written workout aerobic fitnes plan are:
1. warm up and cool-down
2. Primary cardiorespiratory activity criteria:
mode of exercise
frequency of exercise
duration of exercise
intensity of exercise
3.supportive conditioning exercise (e.g. strenght and flexibility)
4. Progression plan
5. safety and cautions

Testing and Evaluation Chapter 6

2009-08-08T21:45:00.000-07:00

Chapter 6
Some of the purposes of fitness training include…
1. To assess current fitness levels relative to age and sex
2. To aid in the development of an exercise progeam
3. To identify areas of health and injury risks with possible referral to the appropriate health professional
4. To establish goals and provide motivation
5. To evaluate progress
Four components that are measured in a comprehensive assesment include…
1. Cardiorespiratory efficiency (at rest and during exercise)
2. Muscular strenght and endurance
3. Muscle and joint flexiblity
4. Body composition
The minimum evaluation you should require is the assesment of health-risk factors, and the completion of an exercise history and attitude questionnaire.
The ACSM recommends that men over 45 and women over 55 with two or more positive cardiovascular risk factors have a physican-supervised maximal graded exercise test before taking part in any vigorous exercise. Greater that 60% of capacity.
The cardiovascular risk factors recognized by the ACSM are outlined in Chapter 5.
Informed consent should explain the purpose and process of the testing and include a statement of the potential for discomfort, pain or even death associated with its implementation. While this may be extreme it your legal responsibilities to adequately inform your clients of even the most unlikely occurences that could take place during a procedure.
A written emergency procedure include everything from how to report an emergency and what to do for minor injuries in the gym, to how to respond to an apparent cardiovascular event. All procedures should include a detailed delineation of responsiblities and documentation in the event of an incident.
The purpose of cardiorespiratory testing can give you vaulable information to aid in both the development and maintenance of your client’s program. Regular resting heart rate and blood pressure checks provide some basic cardiovascular health status and program progress information.
Measuring heart rate indirectly by placing fingertips on a pulse sit (palpation), or directly by listening through a stethoscope (auscultation). Resting heart rate is most accurately measured before the client gets out of bed in the morning. Accuracy is further enhanced by averaging three separate morning readings. Resting pulse for 30 seconds and times two to feel carotid artery pulse or radial pulse.
Heavy pressure should not be applied to the carotid arteries because they contain baroreceptors that sense increase in pressure and respond by slowing the heart rate, exercise pulse should be taken for 10 seconds, counting the first pulse beat as 0 at the start of a ten second period. Electronic heart rate monitors are good.
Endurance trained persons generally have a lower resting heart rate due to the increased amount of blood that the heart pumps with each beat (stroke volume).
Blood pressure reflects the force of the heartbeat and the resistance of the arteries to the pumping action of the heart. It is measured in milimeters of mercury.
The higher number systolic blood pressure, represents the pressure created by the heart during a complete cardiac cycle. The lower the number, diastolic blood pressure that remains in the arteries during the filling phase of the cardiac cycle, when the heart relaxs.
Cardiorespiratory fitness is assessed by measurement of oxygen uptake during a maximal graded exercise test, or indirectly by estimating maximal oxygen uptake (v02 max) from the heart-rate response to a submaximal workload. The direct measurement of maximal oxygen uptake is by far the most accurate method, but it requires specialized equipment. To keep the test submaximal, the intensity should not exceed 85% of heartrate reserve (Karvonen formula) or maximum oxygen uptake.
Rating of percieved exertion gives you an indication of your clients’ status during a test and will be valuable in determination of a training heart-rate range following the test.
Absolute vs. Relative Maximal oxygen uptake
Maximal oxygen consumption figures from bike tests will usually be given in liters per minute (L\min) so weight is not a factor in the measurement. Maximal oxygen uptake measurements that are taken from weightbearing activities such as walking, jogging, and stepping are usually given in milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per minute.
Relative 02 uptake= o2 uptake (L\min) x 1000/ body weight (kg)
What is the YMCA submaximal bicycle test?
This submaximal bicycle ergometer test is developed to evaluated physical working capacity, and to estimated maximal oxygen uptake, Requires little training or practice, know how
The Ross submaximal treadmill test speed is held at a constant 3.4 mph, and the elvation is increased every 3 minutes. Submaxial heart rate is measured the last 15 seconds of every minute.
Heart rate should not exceed 150-155 bpm. DO not go to stage 2 in heart rate exceeds 140 the slient is unfit.
YMCA submaximal step test is set to a metronome of 96 bpm (24 step cycles per minute) up up down down. Continued for three minutes and one minute recovery to check pulse. Sitting down
The McArdle Step Test 16.25 inch step….men should step at 24 or 96 bpm while women 22 steps per minute or 88pbm. Have client step for three minutes and wait 5 seconds while standing then check pulse for 15 seconds and times by 4.

The Rockport Fitness walking test is routinely used to assess the cardivascular fitness of those with a low to moderate aerobic fitness level. The test invovled includeds a timed 1-mile walk on a smooth and level surface. Where as lab tests measure parameters (e.g. estimated VO2 workload or heart rate.) this test evaluates performance directly. After completeting the exercise take a ten second pulse and times 6. Walk for 5 minutes for cool down.
The BYU Jog test requires a 1 mile jog at a steady pace, 2-3 minute warm up jog. Heart rate should be under 180 bpm.
Excess body fat has been associated with a number of health risks, including heart disease, arthritis, gall bladder disease, cirrohosis of the liver, hernia, intestinal obstruction, and sleep disorders.
Also reduced performance and increased risk for injury.
Body composition refers to the quality or makeup of total body mass, which can be divided into fat-free mass and fat mass. Fat free mass is composed of muscles, bone, organs. While fat mass is composed of adipose tissue.
It is not uncommon for an exerciser to lose fat weight and gain muscle weight without any change in total body weight.
The four most common methods of assesing body weight are hydrostatic weighing, circumference measurements, bioelectrical impedance, and skin-fold measurements.
Hydrostatic weighing is considered the Gold standard of body compostion assesment.
Bioelectrical Impedance is based on the principle that the conductivity of an electric impulse is greater through lean tissue than through fatty tissue.
Body Mass index is calculated BMI=weight in kilograms/ height
To convert pounds to kilograms divide by 2.2. then multiply by 2.54 and divide by 100:
Anthropometric assessments of body compostion are perhaps the most easiest and least expensive methods for assessing body compostion. This includes circumference and skin fold measures.
Circumference and bone density
Waist to hip ratio estimates body fat distribution WHR. To calculate the WHR divide the waist measurement by the hip measurement.
Hydrostatical measurements have the least amount of room for error. Skin fold is 3.5% room for error.
The two primary systems of err in measuring girth are inconsisent tape placement during repeated measurements and variations of tension placed on the tape during measurements.
Measure chest, waist, hips, thigh, calf, ankle, upper arm, wrist, 8 total
Flexibilty is defined as the range of motion of a given joint. It is often associated only with muscular flexibility, the extent to which range of motion is limited by muscles and tendons surrounding the joint. Affects both health and fitness.
Trunk flexion is measured with the sit and reach test, which is administered with a yardstick and tape.
Hip flexion is measured by pulling the right leg back while lying in the prone position on the floor with the spine flat on the ground. Shortened hip flexors are often assosiated with low-back pain syndrome.
The shoulder flexibility test assesses whether poor shoulder flexibility can affect a client’s postural alignment. If the shoulders adductors are excessively tight the client may assume a posture often called the “gorilla stance”. Arms above the head . If the arms do not lie flat a shortness in the pectoralis major, teres major and latimus dorsi is indicated.
Muscular strenght is the greatest amount of force that muscles that muscles can produce in a single maximal effort.
Muscular endurance refers to the muscles ability to excert a submaximal either repeatedly or statically over time.
The most accurate means for assesing muscular strenght isometric (static) strenght testing entails muscle contraction without movement. Varies throughout range of joint movement and elicits and higher blood pressure response.
To measure isokinetic strenght testing measures effective muscle force output at every point in the movement range using a computer. Expensive
The most popular form of strenght training is dynamic (isotonic) assesments using free weights or weight-stack machines. Examples include the one-repitition maximum (1 rm) bench press, squatm overhead press and dead life. The 10-repetition-maximum test may be a safer means for evaluating muscular strenght. Conducted with strict form and slow movement speed.
Muscular endurance testing lower-weight/higher repetition muscular enduance tests are more appropriate for less-fit clients. Push up test and half-sit up test.
Push up measures upper body strenght such as the triceps, anterior deltiod and pectoralis muscles.
Half sit up test is to evaluate abdominal muscle strenght and endurance, full sit ups are potentially harmful to the lower back. As many crunches within a one minute period.
The bench press test measures endurance and strenght of the shoulders and chest. 35 bar bell for women and 80 pound barbell for men.
The first follow up tests will be administered 4 to 12 weeks following the onset of training.
The goal of follow up tests is to compare to the intial baseline tests to see improvements in fitness level.
U should assess the clients cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, flexibilty, and muscluar strenght and endurance.
Cardiorepiratory fitness is essential component of physical fitness and has grown to receive equal acclaim for improving cardiovascular health in both primary and secondary prevention, this also describes the health and function of the heart and lungs, circulatory system. Cardioresipatory fitness also desribes the capacity of the lungs to exchange oxygen and carbon dioside with the blood and the circulatory system.
· Benefits of cardiovascular fitness include reduction in blood pressure
· Increased hld cholestoral
· Decreased total cholestoral
· Decreased body fat stores
· Increased aerobic workout capacity
· Decreased clinical symptoms of anxiety, tension and depression
· Reduction in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion
· Increased heart function
· Reduction in mortality in post myocardial infarction patients
· Prevention of type 2 diabetes
Physiological responses to exercise includean increase in body fat utilization, a decrease in periperal vascular resistance, and increase in maximal oxygen consumption—help decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes by favorably modifying risk factors like obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, and elevated triglycerides and ldl cholesterol.
The essential components of exercise of the written plan are;
1. Warm up and cool-down
2. Primary cardiorespiratory activity criteria
a. Mode of exercise
b. Frequency of exercise
c. Duration of exercise
d. Intensity of exercise
3. Supportive conditioning exercise (strenght and flexibilty)
4. Progression Plan
5. Saftey and cautious
The purpose of a warm up and cool down is to prepare and help the body gradually adjust to rest after the workout. The warm up should gradually increase the heart rate, blood presure, oxygen consumption, dialation of the blood vessels, elasticity of the active muscles and heat produced by the active muscles. Warm up and flexibility
Cool down helps prevent the sudden pooling of blood in the veins and ensures adequate circulation to the skeletal muscles, heart and brain. 5-10 cool down.
For maximum effectiveness and safety the cardiorespiratory exercise program must include specific instructions on the mode, frequency, duration, and intensity of exercise. Measured in improvements such as increase in V02MAX
The minimum duration, intensity and frequency of physical activity required for health enhancement is the accumulation of 30 moderate-intensity activity on most days.
Cardiovascular endurance activities are grouped into 3 groups
GROUP 1: Physical activities in which exercise intensity is easily maintained at a constant level, and interindividual varation in energy expenditure is relatively low. Walking and cyclying.
GROUP 2: Physical activites in which energy expenditure is related to skill, but for a given individual can provide a constant intensity; aerobic dance, swimming, skating, and cross country skiing.
GROUP 3: Physical activites that are quite variable in skill and intensity: soccer, basketball and racquet sports.
Exercise mode is made on the clients functional caoacity, interests, time availability, equipment and facilities, and personal goals. Using large muscle groups.
Exercise frequency refers to the number of exercise sessions per week included in the program, frequency depends on duration and intensity of the exercise session. Should exercise 3 days per week with no more than 2 days of rest in between. 3-5 days per week for exercise program.
Jogging should wait a minmum of 36 to 48 hours in between to prevent overuse and promote adequate bone\joint stress recovery.
Exercise duration refers to the number of minutes of exercise during the conditioning period. High fitness should go between 30-60 minutes.
Intensity of exercise includes the maximum heart rate….of 55/65% to 90%
Or between 40/50% and 85% of heart-rate reserve
Five ways to monitor exercise intensity include
1. Heart Rate
a. Percentage of maximal heart rate
b. Percentage of heart-rate reserve
2. Rating of percived exertion
3. The “talk” test
4. METs
Percentage of heart rate reserve or the Karvonen formula.
Similar to percentage of maximal heart rate…except resting heart rate is factored in. Calculated by maximum heart rate-resting heart rate times desired intensity plus heart rate= training heart rate.

The 220-age formula has been called into question because it variables from 10-12 beats per minute.
The BORG scale is also know as the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) on a scale to 6-20 or 0-10.
The talk test method is quite useful in determining the comfort zone.
Intensity measured by METS. A MET is a multiple of resting oxygen consumption. One MET equals a person’s oxygen uptake at rest, which is equilvalent to 3.5 millileters of oxygen per given kilogram of body weight per minute.
Relative exercise intensity is a better predictor of health outcomes than recommending that someone exercise at an absolute intensity. Need to be tailored to the individual in contrast to a flat MET level for all.
Establishing a written exercise plan to reinforce compliance and motivation and for assesment during follow up. The clients implementation and progression plan must reflect these goals and depict means of achieving them safely and realistically.
The following are examples of areas that can be addressed in the formulation of cardiorespiratory exercise and activity goals.
1. Overall acquistion and maintance of cardiorespiratory fitness (kcal and day energy expenditure, mastery of jogging, 20 pound weight loss)
2. Cardiovascular risk-factor modification
a. Body composition
b. Blood pressure reduction
c. Cholesterol control
d. Stress and anxiety reduction
3. Performance objectives
a. Personal accomplishment (e.g. 10K run, 1 mile swim, or 6-mile hike)
b. Increased physical stamina
1 pound of fat is equal to 3,500 kcals.
If a person weighs 150 lbs has a VO2max of 40ml and is exercising at 70% of VO2 max for 20 minutes how many calories are expended during exercise?
A written progressive plan with periodic reevaluation is crucial. This plan must provide details for a gradual progression in the frequency, duration and intensity of exercise. There must be sufficient flexibilty in the rate of progression so that the plan comfortably adjusts to the client’s cardiorespiratory and muscularskeletal response. Depends upon individual level of fitness, age, health status, cardiorespiratory response to exercise, individual preferences and goals, social and family support, level of exercise initiative and motivation, access to appropriate facilities and equipment.

Three stages initial conditioning stage lasts from 4 to six weeks or longer and includes low level aerobic activities, stretching and light calisthenics. Exercise ahould begin every other day. 10-20 minutes 40-60%
Improvement conditioning stage for most aerobic training programs. It may last from 8-20 weeks, and the rate of progression in intensity is more rapid. Raise the workout intensity to 60-90%of maximal heart rate, depending on fitness level and age. Exercise intensity should be increased every 2-3 weeks according to the clients response and goals. Review progress at two-four week intervals during this stage, by direct monitoring or by assessing self-report data. (RPE, heart rate, symptoms, caloric expenditure.)
Maintenance stage when clients reach their target functional capacity or primary goals, the maintenance stage begins, this stage is usually reached after the first 6 months of training but can be reached with in 12 months depending on goals.
Several cautions for an exerise plan include any personal or environment concerns …hot humid .
Do not exercise 90 minutes after eating a meal.
Avoid continouing exercise with chest discomfort, lightheadedness or dizziness.
Reduce activity in high altitude climates.
Avoid exercises with a tendor joint
Aviod strenous exercise during viral infections such as the flu or upper respiratory tract infection.
Training methods include 5 types
1. Continous training
a. Intermediate slow distance
b. Long slow distance
2. Interval Training
a. Aerobic interval training
b. Anaerobic interval training
3. Fartlek training
4. Circuit training
5. Aerobic cross training
Two types of continous training include
Intermediate slow distance: generally from 20-60minutes of continous aerobic exercise, body fat reduction, improvement in cardiovascular fitness and risk factor management.
Long slow distance (LSD) 60 or more minutes of continous aerobic exercise, usually employed for athletic training in such sports such as cycling and long distance running. Cardiovascular and metabolic demands are great for LSD training.
Interval training invovles alternating relatively more intense bouts of cardiovascular exercise with those that are relatively less intense. Interval training has useful applications for beginning exercise programs and well as for experienced clients.
Aerobic interval training includes bouts of 2-15 minutes at an intensity between 60-80 functional capacity.
Anerobic interval training is primarily reserved for those in higher cardiorepiratory fitness classifications who desire to increase speed between 30 seconds to 4 minutes.
Fartek training is similar to interval training however the work-rest intervals are not systematically or accurately measured. Determined how the participant feels.
Circuit training 20-50 minutes using various aerobic fitness machines

Aerobic Cross Training os and individualized combination or composite of all aerobic-training methods and is characterized by a variety of intensities and modes, mini version of triathlon.
Some domestic activities include yard work, cleaning, scrubbing, gardening, and repair work generate energy costs of 3 to 6 METS and are important contributors to disease prevention.
The easiest and most preferred aerobic-conditioning activity is walking and preferred because of low injury rates, relative simplicity, and adaptablilty to busy schedules.
Walking is a low energy type of exercise for those with a low functional capacity of exercise ranked at 2-7METS,
The three things to pay attention to while designing a walking program 1)foor wear is important, 2) Always warm up and cool down. Begin each session by walking about 5 minutes and then stretch the Achilles tendons, calvesl and low back muscles. Affer primary conditioning cool dowm and stretch the muslces again. 3)Give special emphasis to gradually increasing duration—for examole 15-60 minutes over the length of a program. Adding in the hilley terain slightly.
Pedometer walking allows step by step quanity walking distance. Numerous plans have adopted the 10,000 steps a day program to help prevent diabetes.
Difference between jogging and running are superb cardio-respiratory-endurance activities. The difference is the jogger is the “slower runner”, slower than 8 minutes a mile.
Four things that are important when designing a jogging\running program are 1) footwear appropriatem always to accompany jogging or running 2)exercise approriate flexibility exercise. 3)evey other day (no more than 4 days per week) with a day of rest between each, limit initial duration to no more than 25 to 30 minutes for the firtd 6-8weeks. 4)increase jogging pace and gradually add hills and increase pace.
Outdoor cyclying limitations include inclement weather, nightfall and some unsafe city environments. Use a bicycle with 10 speess, toe clips and bicycle clothes.

The advantages of indoor cyclying include its convenience and relative safety.
Guidelines for indoor cyclyng include 1) ensure proper ventilation. 2) Adjust seat for height.
3)Adjust handle bars so that the clients is relaxed and leans slightly forward.
4)hold pedal crank relativetly constant. 5) always warm up and cool down. 6) intense exercise requires more of a warm up cool down.
Some guidelines for swimming and vetical water exercises include it is a good alternative for those with othropedic problems or a recent muscularskeletal injury. Several factors determine swimming efficiency including bouyancy, swimming skill and style, and body dimensions.
Vertical water exercise being upright in the water is a good way of developing cardiorespiratory fitness either in shallow water or deep-water. Guidelines include assess skill, pool temp should be low, lap pool, interval training for the beginning swimmer, good warm ups and cool down, floatation devices can be used.
Guidelines for rowing include secure feet in the anchors on the front part of the machine. 2) use a smooth rowing action (coordinate arm and back rowing movements). 3) begin with relatively low intensity and work up intensities. 4) Graduate the speed to approximately 15-30 rows per minute. 5) gradually increase intensity.
Some saftey precautions for stair-climbing include a fan or other means of convective cooling should always be used because of the tendency to overheat on stationary machines. Warm up by walking.
Guidelines for traditional aerobics…wear apropriate footwear, for beginners, recommend low-impact aerobics-a form of traditonal aerobics that features one foot on the ground at all times, reducing the risk of muscularskeletal injury, and may include the use of light weights. Lower the target heart rate slightly, because aerobics may cause heart rate to 10 -15 bpm higher.
Step training is commensurate with that of traditional aerobic exercise, such as running of cyclying.
Tennis, Racquetball and Handballrequire various motor skills and neuromuscular coordination and level of play depends on these skills/
Factors that govern cardiorespiratory and metabolic result of hiking and backpacking are the body weight of the hiker, duration of the hike, number and size of the grades, altitude at which the hike occurs, speed of movement, pack load, air temperature.
Tai Chi is one form of the ancient practice of qigong, also known as a moving meditation. Very helpful for seniors. Mind-body exercise.
The heart rate can be obtained by palpating (feeling) the pulse or by using a cardiotachometer or electrocardiogram. From a practical standpoint, palpatation is the easiest method to assess heart rate.
The pulse may be palpated in the neck (carotid artery), the head (temporal artery), the wrist (radial artery) or the chest (apial artery).
As a result of training the resting heart rate decreases. For example using the stationary bicycle over time will produce this result. Resting heart rate also tends to decrease with training along with decrease in submaximal exercise heart rate.
For young and middle age adults, the improvement will be 15—20% over 10-20 weeks of training.
May improve over 45-50% depending on intial level of fitness, age, frequency of training, intensity of training, duration of exercise and total training programs, genetics.
The ability to recognize and differentiate exercise fatigue and maximizing saftety include:
1. Exercise fuel depletion…liver and muscle glycogen are relatively low after 60 to 8o minutes of intense cardiorespiratory exercise.
2. Large increases in lactate production and/ or accumulation in working muscle is principal cause of exercise fatigue. May also occur in hot weather and high altitiudes
3. Hyperthermia-dehydration is a gradual increase in body temperature from prolonged aerobic exercise in hot, humid conditions and or inadequate water replenishment during prolonged exercise, and mental confusion,
4. Musculoskeletal discomfort exhibits fatigue like symptoms from unusal stress on the bone from weightbearing activities such as jogging, this form of fatigue is associated on the muscle, jointm ligament or tendon and casuses increased tenderness that worsens with increased activity.
5. General overtraininf or staleness. Refers to the final stage in a proposed continuum of increasingly severe chronic fatigue states that develop as a result of overtraining, especially high-volume endurance overtraining. It is associated with disturbances in sleep, loss of appetite and weight, muscle soreness, a propensity for overuse injuries and an increased heart rate.
6. Abnormal cardiac symptoms or chest discomfort (angina). Although uncommon this form of fatigue would represent a contraindictio to continued exercise and justify a physican referral. Symptoms include chest discomfort (aching, pressure, burning, or tightness) that tends to come with physical discomfort and is relived by rest.
We can maximize exercise safety by becoming aware and understanding the environmental factors that can alter the response to exercise or predispose the client to increased risk of injury or cardiovascular complications. These factors include post-meal exercise, thermal stress, air pollutants, drugs and other substance, and the presence of unusual symptoms.
To aviod thermal stress allow 10-14 days to adjust to the climate. Defer exercise if it is in a hot and humid zone “high risk”. Avoid training on the hottest day from 10-2. Drink 17-20 ounces of water.
Wear lose fitting clothing that allows for expiration of sweat.
Rest every 10 minutes, for every 45-50 minutes,
Air Pollutants are ozone, or smog most frequnetly dealt with when exercising outdoors in large cities. Carbon monoxide is a common air polluntant that reduces aerobic capacity . Dust and smoke are not conductive to exercising.

Drugs and all beta-blocking drugs and some of the calcium-channel blocking medicines perscribed for a variety of hypertensive and cardiac disordersk lower the heart rate in response to exercise.
Psychological medications can have side effects can reduce maximal aerobic capacity.
Antihypertensive drugs can make exercise safer.
Diretics and dehydration

Health Screening: Chapter 5

2009-07-05T01:43:00.000-07:00

By becoming knowledgeable about nutrition so you can provide sound, credible nutritional information to your clients in terms they can understand. FInd a registered dietitian or physician sensible responses to your questions.

Health Screening allows you to
1. Identify health conditions and risk factors that may necessiate referal or place the aclient at risk when participating in certain activities.
2. Identify possible contraindicticated activities
3. Assist in designing an exercise program that includes safe activities and or appropriate modifications
4. Fulfill legal and insurance requirments for you or the health club
5. Open lines of communication between you and physicans that will help you to gain a reputation as a concerned professional and ally in health promotion.

The American College of Sports Medicine recommends moderate to vigorous exercise to assit in determining the need for referral and /or physician clearance for certain individuals.

Intensity defined p.150
Moderate exercise is defined as an intensity of 40 to 59% VO2R

Note that VO2R is the difference between VO2Max and resting VO2 and correlates with the Karvonen heart rate reserve method of establishing and monitoring exercise intensity. Or moderate exercise intensity is “an intensity well within the individual’s current capacity that can be sustained for a prolonged period of time, that is, approximately 45 minutes, which has gradual initiation and progression and is generally noncompetitive.

Vigourous exercise is defined as activitiess of >6 METs, Vigourous exercise may alternaltely be defined as exercise intense enough to represent a substantial cardiorespiratory challenge. Maybe defined as intensity of >60% maximal oxygen uptake.

Risks, Benefits and GOALs
Infections or acute diseases made life expectancy around 50.
80% of the deaths in the U.S. are from chronic heart diseases are from CHRONIC diseases that are largely a result of lifestyle.

Taking responsibility of how we live we can gain some control over our health and mortality.

Key components of a healthy life style are: PA goodnu stress/all/man psybalance routine check
· Physical activity
· Good nutrition
· Stress alleviation/management
· Psychological balance
· Rountine check-ups

A sedentary lifestyle is now recognized as a health hazard and everyone can benefit from a bit of exercise.

Health Screening Flow chart proceedures include performing physical screen.

No and yes questions, identity of expectations, lifestyle information, and fitness goals. Also refer appropriate health/medical professional. Low to Vigourous exercise intensity, age bracket. Determine appropriate fitness tests and program design. Reevaluate every 12 months or when a new condition arises.

HEALTH SCREENING FORMS
The necessary compontents of a health history form: include
1. Demographic information, age, sex, occupation
2. Past and present exercise history;
3. Health risk factors
4. Medications
5. Recent or current illness and injuries
6. Surgery and injury history
7. Family medical history

The Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) has been recommended as a minimal prerequiste for beginning a low-to moderate-intensity exercise program.

Update information on this form every year or any time a new condition arises.

Risks include increasing the risk of both muscularskeletal injuries and cardiovascular problems, such as cardiac arrest. Overall the risks in the general population is low.

Injuries related to physical activity ususally come from an
Aggravating an existing condition, either known or unknown by the client)
Or precipitating a new condition

The primary systems of the body that experience stress during physical activity are the cardiovascular, respiratory, and muscularskeletal systems.

Benefit- to risk ratio

Atherosclerosis is a process where fatty deposits of cholesterol and calcium accumulate on the walls of the arteries, causing them to thicken, and lose elasticity.

When this process effects the arteries that supply the heart, it is called coronary heart disease. CAD

Chest discomfort from increased oxygen demand when the heart cannot not supply enough oxygen, results from pressure or tightness in the chest is called angina.

This pain can also be experienced in the shoulder, arm or jaw. This pain may be accomplished by shortness of the breath, sweating, nausea, and palpitations (pounding or racing of the heart).

Although regular exercise is an important part of treatment and rehabilitation CAD need a physican’s release, along with descriptions of any special limitations, before beginning an exercise program.

Positive CAD risk factors include…family history, cigarette smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose fasting, obesity, sedentary lifestyle.

Hypertension or high blood pressure is more prevalent among black Americans and elderly.

An individual’s risk of CAD, stroke, and kidney disease increases progressively with higher levels of systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

The lungs (respiratory system) problems include…brochitis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are common. Each of theses conditions may result in dyspnea (difficult breathing) making exercise difficult.

The muscularskeletal system consists of muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments that support and move the body. Commonly injured during exercise.

Minor sprains and strains are common. The most common type of injury sustained by persons participating in physical activity is the overuse injury.

These injuries are usually result of poor training techniques, poor body mechanics or both. Examples include runner’s knee, swimmer’s shoulder, tennis elbow (epicondylitis), shin splints (pain in the anterior lower leg) and iliotibial (IT) band syndrome (pain along the outside of the knee and thigh). Cross train to allow healing to occur.

Knee reconstruction may take up to 1 year to heal.

Atrophy of the muscles surrounding an injury may occur after 2 days of inactivity.

Metabolic diseases that may interfere with metabolism are diabetes and thyroid disorders.

Exercise to regulate blood glucose and to faclilitate fat loss, is an important component of the lifestyle of the individual with diabetes.

The thyroid is a small gland in the neck that secretes a hormone that regulates the rate of metabolism, Hyperthyroid persons have increased levels and higher metabolic rates, Hypothyriod is reduced levels that require medication to make levels normal.

A myocardial infarction is also known as a heart attack.

Medications
Betablockers, antihistamines, bronchodilators.

Antihypertensives primarly affect the heart, to reduce its force of contraction; the peripheral blood vessels, to open or dilate them to allow more room for the blood; the brain, to reduce the sympathetic nerve outflow, or the kidneys, to delplete body water and decreases blood volume. Common antihypertensives include BETA BLOCKERS….beta-adrenengic blocking agents block beta-a. Receptors and limit sympathetic nervous system stimulation. They block the effects of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinphrine)
Calcium Channel blockes…..calcium channel blockers prevent calcium-dependent contraction of the smooth muscles in the arteries, causing them to dialate, which lowers blood pressure. These agents are also used for angina and heart dyrhythmias.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) ACE inhibitors block an enzyme secreted by the kidneys, preventing the formation of a potent hormone that constricts blood vessels, if this enzyme is blocked, the vessels dilate, and blood pressure decreases.
Angiotensin-II receptor antagonists-(blockers) are a newer class of antihypertensive agents. Cough occurs much less often with these agents than with ACE inhibitors. Do not cause rebound hypertension after discontinuation.

Diuertics are medications that increase the excertion of water and electrolytes throught the kidneys. Ususally perscribed for high blood pressure or when a person accumulates too much water and electrolyte imbalances, which may lead to dangerous cardia arrythmias.

Bronchodilators….asthma medications relax or open the air passages in the lungs, allowing better air exchange. There are many different types but the primary action of each is to stimulate the sympathetic nervous system. Bronchodialators increase exercise capacity in persons limited by bronchospasm.

Cold medications…. Decongestants act directly on the smooth muscles of the blood vessels to stimulate vasoconstriction. In this upper airways, this constriction reduceds the volume of sollen tissues and results in more air space, Vasoconstriction in the periperal vessels may raise blood pressure and increase heart rate at rest and possibly during exercise.

Antihistamines block the histamine receptor, which is invovled with the mast cells and the allergic response. Produce a drying effect in the upper airways that may cause drowsiness.

A physical evaluation is important for lifestyle information
1. Physical activity feelings, barriers, preferences, history
2. Family and social support
3. Occupation
4. Stressors
5. Dietary patterns
6. Hobbies and leisure activities

Health history and lifestyle analysis
Two important components are the resting blood pressure and the resting heart rate to establish a baseline, blood pressure greater than 140/90 is classified as hypertension.

Comprehension health screening for the personal trainer includes
Health history form and interview, assesment of risk factors and need for physician referal or clearance,
Assesment of any medications and their effect on exercise response, identification of lifestyle factors that may affect program design, and physical screening

Biomechanics and Applied Kineosology Chapter 3

2009-07-03T01:27:00.000-07:00

Kinesiology is the study of those movements and postures and is grounded in the principles of two sciences: atatomy and mechanics.

To understand human movement, you must know the physical structures of the component parts (bones, joints and muscles) and how the physical laws of motion govern these structures (mechanics).

The goal is to understand how the component parts work together to provide the stability and mobility needed for effective human performance in sports and the activities of daily living.

Applying the principles of biomechanics (mechanics applied to living things) and kinesiology will enable you to design exercise programs that are safe, effective, and compatible with the body's function and design

What is motion? Motion is a change is an object's position in relation to another object,

The two primary reference points in the body are the joints and segments, which are parts between two joints.

For example the upper arm segment is between the shoulder and the elbow, the lower-leg segment is between the knee and ankle joints.

The four types of motion

rotary...tetherball angular motion
translatory....moves in a straight line or linear motion
curvilinear.......small gliding motion within a joint....throwing a ball
general plane motion....................linear motion when riding a bicycle.

A force is something that tends to cause motion. Simply stated it is a push or pull exerted by one object or substance on another. A force can be external to the body such as gravity (the pull of the earth on a body) water, air (wind), other objects or other people.

Muscle forces are considered internal forces when the body as a whole is the reference point, however when the joint or joint axis is the reference point, muscular forces are classified as "external" because they act outside the joint itself.

In movement a motive force cause an increase in speed or a change in direction.

A resistive force resists the motion of another external force.

In weight training the contracting muscle may be the motive force (tending to cause motion) and gravity (acting on the body segment and dumbbell) is the resistive force that (resists the motion of the motive force)

When the muscle acts as the motive sorce it shortens and creates muscle tension which called concentric action.

When the muscle acts as the resistive force, it lenghthens as it creates muscle tension. This is called eccentric action.

When muscle tension is created, but no apparent change in lenght occurs, the muscle action is called isometric.

Body segments as a system of levers as they rotate around the joints.

A lever is a rigid bar with fixed point around which it rotates when an external force is apllied.

The fixed point is called its fulcrum. In general the center of a joint acts as a fulcrum of rotary motion of the body segments.

Flexion and Extension occur in the sagittal plane,

Abduction and Adduction occur in the frontal plane

Internal and External rotation occur in the Transverse plane.

The axis of rotation is the imaginary line or point about which the lever rotates. It intersects the center of a joint and is perpendicular to the plane of movement.

coronal plane (side-to-side)

When does equilibrium occur? The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of applied force is called a lever arm. The lever arm lenght of the motive force (F) is the force of the arm (Fa). The lever arm lenght of the resistance (R) is the resistance arm (Ra). Equilibrium occurs (the lever is in balance) if the force times the force arm equals the resistance times the resistance arm (F*Fa=R*Ra)

When a force acts on a lever at some distance from the axis of rotation a turning effect occurs. The magnitude of torque is found by multiplying the amount of force by the lenght of the lever arm (perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation). Therefore , F x Fa is the torque of the motive force,and R x Ra is the torque of the resistance. Rotation occurs in the direction of the greater torque.

What is the law of Inertia? A body at rest stays at rest, and a body in motion stays in motion with the same velocity and direction unless acted upon by an external force. Simply stated force is required to start an object of motion and to decelerate or stop an object that is already moving.

Law of Acceleration? Newton's 2nd LAW It states that force (F) acting upon a body moving in a general direction is equal to the body's mass (m) multiplied by the body's acceleration (a): F=ma.

Impact and Reaction forces

Newton's third law applies the law of impact and reaction forces, states that for every force applied by one body to a second, the second applies an equal force on the first, but in the opposite direction. . Thus for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Also relates to a moving body's momentum. running, jumping and high impact aerobics. Injurys occur when the body is misaligned so that the forces.

Three classes of levers

axis

force

location

Motive force acts further away from the axis of rotation than the resistive force, allowing smaller forces to easily move large amounts of resistance. A mechanical advantage is utilized with a long lever arm to move a relatively large force at the end of a short lever arm.

The motive force has a shorter lever arm and the resistance has a longer lever arm. In a third class lever system, the motive force muscles are at a mechanical disadvantage and must create a strong force to lift small amounts of resistance.

Linear or angular momentum is the quantity of motion that a moving body possesses and is equal to its mass times it's velocity.

A body's momentum can increase two ways: by increasing its mass or increasing its velocity.

TO lessen fatigue move the weight closer to the working joint.

There are several types of muscle fiber arrangements. including penniform (unipennate, bipennate, multipennate) and longitudinal. Penniform muscles are designed for higher force production that longitudinal muscles.

Most muscles in the body are penniform muscles, in which the fibers lay diagonally to the line of pull. example quadriceps.

Longitudinal muscles are long and thin and have parallel fibers that run the same direction as the length of the muscle, Allows for speed on contraction. Example the sartorius and the rectus abdominous.

The center of gravity is the point at which its mass is considered to concentrate and where it is balanced on either side in all planes (frontal , sagittal and transverse)

In an average person this point is usually located at the second sacral vertebrae, but changes from person to person.

The line of gravity acts on the body in a straight line through its center of gravity toward the center of the earth, THis line is called the line of gravity,

The larger the base of the support is more stable. The narrower the base is used for practicing balance.

Neutral alignment occurs when the parts of the body are balanced and symetrical around the line of gravity: the right and left halves of the body are mirror images of each other and the body is balanced from the front to the back allowing the spine to display its natural curves,

Muscular imbalance manifest themselves in a person's posture and alignment are are frequently influenced by work and standing, sitting, and moving habits.

Kyphosis-lordosis is an increase in the normal inward curve of the lower back, often accompanied by a protruding abdomen and buttocks (lordosis), increased flexion (outer curve) of the thoracic spine, rounded shoulders, and a forward-tilted head (kyphosis)

Scoliosis is the lateral curvature of the spine.

Agonist is also called a prime mover.

Antagonists potential to oppose the action of the agonist.

Lordosis Tight muscles are the lower back (erectors), hip flexors. Weak muscles include abdominals (especially obliques) & hipextensors.

Flat-back Tight muscles: upper abdominals, hip flexors.

Weak back: Lower back (erectors), hip flexors

Sway back....upper abdominals, hip flexors are tight while weak muscles in clude oblique abdominals, hip extensors

Kyphosis........internal oblique, shoulder adductors (pectorals and latissimus), intercostals. Erector spinae of the thoracic spine, scapular adductors (mid and lower trapezius) weak

Forward-head: Cervical extensors, upper trapezius Neck flexors weak.

Agonist is called the prime mover, that causes the desired motion.

Antagonist are muscles that have the potential to oppose the action of the agonist.

synergist muscles assist the agonist in causing a desired action. They may act as joint stablilizers or may neutralize rotation or be activated when the external resistance increases or the agonist becomes fatigued.

The term co-contration describes when the agonist and the antagonists contract together and a joint must be stablizied. It is an important component of functional or usable strenght because the torso muscles must be able to stablize the spine to safetly move external resistance.

The muscles that co-contract to protect a joint and maintain alignment are called stabilizers. Stimulating strenght and endurance of the stabilzers is a vital component of fitness training.

When muscles contract it developes cross-brigdes within a muscle fibers are formed and broken.

Static Isometric Action no visible movement occurs and the resistance matches the muscular tension.

the resistance may come from the opposing muscle group (co-contraction) or another force such as gravity, an immovable object, or weight training equipment. bodybuilders use this pose to show muscle developement. and physical therapists use isometric action in rehabilitation following an injury when a joint must not move. Also used in PNF stretching techniques. Used in balance and stabilization training. V-sit exercise.

Concentric (shortening) Action- the muscle shortens and overcomes the resistive force. Ex. biceps brachii act concentrically in the up-phase of a biceps curl with a dumb bell

Eccentric (lenghting) Action- the muscle is producing force and is "lengthening" or returning to its resting length from a shortened positions, The muscle "gives in" to, or is overwhelmed by the external force and can be thought of as putting on the brakes or slowing the decent of a weight. This occurs when an external force exceeds the contractile force of a muscle.

The neutral position of the lumbar spine and pelvis is the central position, not flexed, extended, tilted, or rotated.

The pelvic tilt whether anterior, posterior or lateral is associated with increased hip flexion and low-back hyperextension.

Motion of the lumbar spine includes flexion, extension, hyperextension, lateral flexion and rotation. Flexion is bending forward, extension is the return to neutral, hyperextension is further extension backward past the neutral position; lateral flexion is bending toward the side, away from the midline and rotation is clockwise or counter clock.

Constant spinal flexion loads the discs unevenly, and outstretches the posterior ligaments of the back and causes poor alignment of the upper body as well. Weak or tight hip\pelvis muscles can have a significant impact on the spine.

The erector spinae has three main divisions (lateral, medial, and intermediate) and extends from the sacrum to the occiput. These muscles attach to the transverse and spinous processes of all vertebrae. The muscle is a large in the lumbosacral region, but divides into several segments (iliocostalis, longissmus, and spinalis) as it continues upward towards the head.

The erector spinae muscles extend, hyperextend, and laterally flex the spine.

To strenghten the erector spinae muscles, use an extension machine or have the client flex forward over the edge of a bench, table, or stability ball for full range of motion. You will have to help stabilize their legs in the prone position.

To stretch the erector spinae have the client lie supine with the hips and knees flexed toward the shoulders.

An important part in training the lumbar muscles is holding the lower back in neutrual when lifting heavy objects and performing squats and lunges, particualrly when using resistance. When the lower back is in neutral during a lift, the spinal muscles co-contract with other torso muscles to stabilize the back, keeping the load evenly distributed over the spinal structures.

The most superficial abdominal muscles are in the external obliques. They arise from the outer surfaces of ribs 5 to 12, extend toward the midline of the abdomen, and insert into a broad flat aponeurosis.

This aponeurosis forms the outer layer of the connective-tissue sheath that cover the rectus abdominus muscle.

The deepest abdominal muscles are the internal obliques. Their fibers also run diagonally, but in the opposite direction.

One way to stabilize the abdominals to stablize the pelvis against the changing resistance of moving arms and legs is the press-and-reach exercise.

The anterior pelvic tilt is achieved by contraction of the iliopsoas muscle and\or the lower-back muscles, depending on the body's position relative to gravity. The fact that the iliopsoas originates on the lumbar vertebrae tells us that it exerts a force on the pelvis as well as on the hip joint. When the hips are extended this muscle is too short if it pulls the hips into an anterior tilt.

The tilt and curl up to train the abdominals to actively flex the spine through the full range of motion.

The anterior hip muscles iliopsoas, rectus femoris, sartorius, tensor fasciae latae, and the pectineus.

The three muscles that make up the iliopsoas are

the psoas major
the psoas minor
iliacus---------------that function as one.

The rectus femoris is one of the four parts of the quadriceps muscle, It attaches to the anterior inferior spine and to the tibia vas the patellar tendon (ligament).

The sartoris also originates on the anterior superior iliac spine and inserts on the medial side of the tibia below the knee. It is a synergist to flex, abduct, and externally rotate the hip and to flex and inwardly rotate the knee.

Tensor Fasciae Latae. origin of this muscle is on the outer surface of the anterior superior iliac spine and the front part of the iliac crest. It insertss into the iliotibial band about one-third of the way down the femur. It acts to flex, internally rotate and abduct the hop, may also contribute to the stability of the extended knee.

Pectineus this muscle originates on the pubic bone and inserts along the pectineal line which is found on the posterior surface of the femur. synergist to hip flexion and adduction.

THe muscles that extend the hip include the gluteus maximus and the hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus) .

The largest muscle in this group is the Gluteus Maximus and also most superficial of the posterior hip muscles,

To stretch the hamstrings combine the anterior tilt of the pelvis with hip flexion and extension. Place one foot on a step with a relatively straight knee and bend forward from the hip keeping the back straight and sternum lifted. Turn the tailbone toward the ceiling, as if sliding the buttocks up a wall. THis tilts the pelvis forward and give the hamstrings a better stretch. to increase the stretch, rotate the leg slightly in then out. This isolates the medial and lateral hamstrings.

The six external rotators are located beneath the gluteus maximus, their order from top to bottom

piriformis
gemelli superior
obturator internus
gemelli inferior
obturator externus
quadratus femoris

Their primary function seems to be stabilization and alignment of the hip.

Hip rotator stretch for runners

The muscles located medial to the hip joint adduct the hip. They include the pectineus and the adductor magnus, minimus, longus and brevis. The last adductor, the gracilis, crosses the knee joint as well. These muscles seem to function primarily as thigh stabilizers, especially during movements such as lunges.

Muscles will become toned to deplete body fat stores by aerobically.

The muscles that abduct the hip include the gluteus medius (laterally) and minimus (anteriorly) and the tensor fascie latae.

The knee joint is a hinge joint and it's primary motions are flexion and extension.

The knee is supported medially and laterally by ligaments. Anteriorally (the extensors) and posteriorly the flexors.

The four knee extensors are the

rectus femoris
vastus medialis
vastus intermedialis
vastus lateralis

As penniform muscles they have large cross sections and are capable of producing significant force.

During a squat the motive force are the wight of the torso and upper body; the resistive forces are the eccentric contractions of the hip and knee extensors.

The best way to avoid knee injury in squats and lunges is to limit the degree of knee flexion to no more than 90 degrees.

the primary knee flexors are the hamstrings, which were previously discussed with the hip flexors,

Secondary knee flexors include the gastrocnemuis, sartorius, gracilis, and popliteus.

The popliteus is a stabilizer that prevents knee dislocation when a squatting position is maintained. It also unlocks the knee by inwardly roatating from the anatomical position. The gastocenemius, though primarily an ankle muscle, acts in certain instances to stabilize or flex the knee.

The gastrocnemius and soleus group make up the bulk of the muscles on the posterior calf. They both cross posterior to the ankle joint so they plantarflex the ankle. The primary function is to rotate the leg (and everything above it) around the ankle, designed to lift and propel.

The major difference between the gastrocnemuis and the soleus.

The gastrocnemuis is a two-joint muscle, with a penniform fiber arrangement and a large angle pull. Overload is achieved by performing multiple sets of heel raises on both feet progressing to one foot.

The soleus acts with the gastrocnemuis to plantar flex the ankle. It does not cross the knee, It is designed to plantar flex with the knee flexed or straight.

Anterior muscles acting on the ankle: Dorsiflexors

The small anterior muscle is designed to move the small load, while the large posterior muscle is designed to move the large load,

The peroneus longus and brevis compost the lateral compartment of the lower leg.Their tendons curve around the lateral malleolus of the ankle and attach to the first and fifth metatarsal, respectively. They are designed for plantarflexion and eversion. For strenghening see Ellison;s Advanced design for lower bosy.

Scapularhumeral movement is the upper body movement

Scapular movements controlled by the shoulder muscle girdle. They include retraction and protraction. also know as scapular adduction and abduction.

The posterior shoulder girdle muscles earn their name because of the stablizing function. They connect the scalpula to the back of the head and torso, particulary to the spine, and they include the trapesious, rhomboid major and minor and the levator scalpulae.

The anterior shoulder muscle girdle includes the serratus anterior and the pectoralis minor.

The shoulder joint is called the glenohumeral joint, It is the articulation between the gleniod fossa of the scapula and the humerous, and it is a multiaxial joint.

Also include the the deltiod, coracobrachialis, latissimus dorsi and teres major.

As well as the rotator cuff muscles (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis) SITS.

questions for analysing and designing effective exercises.

1. What movements occur at each joint?

2. Is the movement slow or fast, against resistance or not?

3. Is the motion occuring against gravity or in its same direction? Is it against some other resistance (pulleys, elastic)?

4. What muscles are causing the joint movement?

Is the contraction concentric, eccentric or isometric?

6. Which muscles are movers and which are stabilizers?

7. Does the movements achieve the stated goal of the exercise?

8. Does the exercise train the primary function of the muscle?

9. Does the movement compromise the safety of other body parts? Are non-moving joints stabilized adequately in neutrual?

10. How can the exercise be adapted to meet the specific needs of the client (made more or less difficult.)?

Push -Up upphase p.109

Push-up down phase

Lateral pull-down

The three principles of biomechanics listed in this chapter

Deltoid anterior, middle, and posterior

Human Anatomy Chapter 2

2009-06-25T11:52:00.000-07:00

Anatomy is a broad science concerned with the study of the structure of the body and the relationships of the body parts to one another.

A fundamental understanding of human anatomy is essential for you to be able to meet your responsibilities as a personal trainer and identify appropriate activities and exercises to help clients achieve their personal fitness goals.

Anatomical terminology
The five major human body systems

cardiovascular system

respiratory system

nervous system

skeletal system

muscular system

Most anatomical terms have their roots in the Latin and Greek languages and are usually quite descriptive.
anterior (ventral) toward the front
posterior (dorsal) toward the back

Superior toward the head
Inferior away from the head

Medial toward the midline of the body
Lateral away from the midline of the body

Proximal toward the attached end of the limb, origin of the structure, or midline of the body
Distal away from the attached end of the limb, origin of the structure, or midline of the body

Superficial external; located close to or on the body surface
Deep internal; located further beneath the body surface that the superficial structures

Cervical regional term referring to the neck
Thoracic regional term referring to the portion of body b\w the neck and the abdomen; also know as the chest (thorax)

Lumbar regional term referring to the portion of the back between the abdomen and the pelvis

Plantar the sole or bottom of the foot
Dorsal the top surface of the foot and hands

Palmar the anterior or ventral surface of the hands

Sagittal Plane A longitudinal (imaginary) line that divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sections

Frontal Plane A longitudinal (imaginary) line that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts; lies at a right angle to the sagittal plane

Transverse Plane also known as the horizontal plane; an imaginary line that divides the body or any of its parts into the superior and inferior sections

arthro joint arthritis inflammation of a joint
bi two biceps two-headed muscle
brachium arm brachialis muscle of the arm
cardio heart cardiology the study of the heart
cephalo head cephalic pertaining to the head
chondro cartilage chondroectomy excision of a cartilage
costo rib costochondral pertaining to the rib and its cartilage
dermo skin dermatitis inflammation of the skin
hemo, hemat blood hemorrhage internal or external bleeding
ilio ilium ilium the wide upper part of the pelvic bone
myo muscle myocitis inflammation of a muscle
os, osteo bone osteomalacia softening of the bone
pulmo lung pulmonary artery vessel that brings blood to the lungs
thoraco chest thorax chest
tri three triceps brachii three headed muscle on are

Anatomical term refers to the position and planes of motion.

The anatomic planes of motion include the sagittal plane, frontal plane, transverse plane, superior, inferior, dorsal or posterior.

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The cardiovascular system is composed of blood, the blood vessels, and the heart. This systems distributes oxygen and nutrients to the cells, carries carbon dioxide and othe metabolic wastes away from the cells, protects against disease, regualtes temperature,and prevents serious blood loss after injury through the formation of clots.

Blood is the only fluid tissue in the body and it is composed of two parts. The formed elements, which include different types of living blood cells ( white bloods cells, red blood cells and platelets) and the plasma is the nonliving portion of the blood.

Blood accounts for 8% of body weight.
woman has about 4-5 liters
man has 5-6 liters

The two types of blood vessels are the arteries that carry the oxygenated blood away from the heart.
Veins transport deoxygenated blood toward the heart

The largest arteries are nearest to the heart.

The arteries branch into smaller vessels called the arterioles that deliver the blood to the even smaller capillaries. Capillaries are the microscopic blood vessels that branch to form an extensive network throughout the distal tissues.

The capillarie beds is where the critical exchange of nutrients and metabolic waste products takes place. Depleted of oxygen and nutrients blood journies back to the heart via small vessels called the venules.

The heart is a hollow muscular organ that pumps the blood throughout the blood vessels, The adult heart is the same size as a small closed fist and lies to the left of the center, behind the sternum and between the lungs. Divided into four chambers.

The two primer pumps, the atria and the two power pumps are the ventricles.

The right atrium receives the blood from all parts of the body except the lungs. The superior vena cava, a large vein that drains the blood from body parts above, (head, neck and arms) and the inferior vena cava, which brings blood from the (legs and abdominal region) transport the blood to the right atrium. During contraction of the heart, blood accumulates in the right atrium. When the heart relaxs, blood from the flows into the right ventricle, which during contraction pumps the blood into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries, which transport blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen acquired. The newly oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the four pulmonary veins that empty into the left atrium. the blood then passes to the left ventricle, which during contraction pumps the blood into the ascending aorta, from this point blood is distributed to all parts of the body except the lungs.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system supplies oxygen, eliminates carbon dioxide and helps regulate the acid-base balance (pH) of the body.

The respiratory system consists of the lungs and a series of passage ways leading to and from them (mouth, throat, treachea, bronchi)

Repiration is the overall exchange of gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen) between the atmosphere, the blood and the cells.

There are three general types of respiration

external

internal

celluar

External resipration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the blood within the large capillaries in the lungs.

Internal respiration involves the exchange of those gases between the blood and the cells of the body.

Celluar respiration invovles the utilization of oxygen and the production of carbon dioxide by the metabolic acitivity within the cells.

When the body is at rest the air enters the respiratory system via the nostrils and is warmed as it passes trough a series of nasal cavities lined by the mucous membrane. From the nasal cavatity inspired air next enters the pharynx (throat), which goes just posterior to the nasal and oral (mouth) cavities. The pharynx serves as a passageway for air and for food and also provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds. During vigorous physical activity, mouth breathing tends to predominate.
The larynx (the organ of the voice) is enlarged (proximal ) end of the trachea (windpipe) The larynx conducts air to and from the lungs via the pharynx.
During vigorous exercise mouth breathing predominates.
The treachea extends from the larynx to approx. the level of the fifth vertebrea, where it divides into the right and left primary bronchi. Each primary bronchus then enters a lung and divides into smaller secondary bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung (five in total) breaks up into bronchioles.

The easy way of locating the larynx is the thyroid cartilage, or Adam's apple

The trachea is 4.5 inches longs kept open by a series of C-shaped cartilages.

The exchange of respiratory gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, between the blood occurs at a anatomic level.

The final components of the respiratory system are the lungs-paired, cone-shaped organs lying in thoracic cavity.

The right lung has three lobes while the left lung has only two lobes.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the body's control center and network for internal communication.
without central control , coordinated humane movements are impossible

The nervous system is divided into two parts according to location:
the central nervous system CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord, is completely enclosed within bony structures. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebral canal of the spinal column. Also receives and integrates information from the PNS.

The peripheral nervous system formulates responses to the information. This is made up of nerves that connect the outlying part of the bodies extremities and their receptors within the central nervous system.

The four main plexuses in the human body:

the cervical plexus (spinal nerves C1 to C4), whose nerves supply the head, neck, upper chest, and shoulders;

brachial plexus (spinal nerves C5 to T1), supplying from the shoulder down to the fingers of the hand

lumbar plexus(spinal nerves L1 through L4), innervating the abdomen, groin, genitalia, and antero-lateral aspect of the thigh

sacral plexus (spinal nerves L4 through S4), which supplies the large muscles of the posterior thigh and the entire lower leg, ankle and foot.

The nerve cells that make up the nervous system carry messages called nerve impulses that originate in either the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord) or in specialized nerve cells called receptors.

Different receptors are sensitive to pain, temperature, pressure, and changes in body postion.

Sensory nerve cells carry the impulses from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord and the brain.

Motor nerve cells carry impulses away from the CNS to respond to the perceived changes in the body's internal or external environment

It's important for the CNS and PNS to communicate and to work in unison to initiate, guide and monitor all aspects of the specific activity.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Consists of 206 bones

The skeletal system is divided into two sections
the axial skeleton, made up of 80 bones...upper body.....head, neck and trunk
the appendicular skeleton made up of 126 bones to form the extremities

The five basic functions of the bones include

The skeletal system provides protection for many of the vital organs such as the heart, brain and the spinal cord.

The skeleton provides support for the soft tissues so that erect posture and the form of the body can be maintained.

The bones provide a framework of levers to which muscles are attached.

the red marrow of the bone is responsible for the production of certain blood cells, namely red blood cells, some types of white blood cells, and platelets.

Bones serve as storage areas for calcium, potassium, sodium, and other minerals. Because of high mineral content the bones remain intact for many years after death. Fat is also stored within the middle section of long bones in the medullary cavity

Bones may also be classified according to their shape: long, short, flat, or irregular.

Bone is composed of an organic component made of collagen, a complex protein that is found in various forms within bone and other connective tissues, and an inorganic component composed of mineral salts, primarily calcium and potassium.

According to Wolff's Law, bone is capable of adjusting its strength in proportion to the amount of stress placed on it.

IF bones are not subjected to stress, as in individuals with sedentary lifestyles or in the absence of gravity, bones will become less dense over time as mineral salts are withdraw. An easy way to remember this important law is "form follows function"
simply stated the for that bone will take (strong or weak) is in direct response to the recent function of the bone.

Amenorrhea low levels of the hormone estrogen 2 or less menstral periods per year.

The purpose of the axial skeleton provides the main structural support for the body and also protects the central nervous system and vital organs in the thorax (heart, lungs. etc)
Consist of 80 bones that form the skull, the vertebrae columnm and the thorax (chest).

There are 33 vertebrae and are divided into 5 groups consisting of

cervical curve 7

thoracic curve 12

lumbar curve 5

sacrum fused 5

coccygeal 4 fused..........................................26 movable vertebrae

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the lower and upper limbs and the bones that attached the legs and arms to the axial skeleton- the pelvic (hip) and pectoral (chest) girdles.

The pelvic girdle consists of two large hip bones known collectively as the os coxae, with each side consisting of an ilium, ischium, and a pubis.

The two pectoral girdles, each consisting of a clavicle (collarbone) and scapula (shoulder blade), attach the bones of the axial skeleton at the sternum.

Since this is the only attachment to or link between the upper extremities and the axial skeleton, several trade offs result from this configuration. Most importantly, the pectoral girdle does permit a wide range of movements at the shoulder, making it the most mobile joint in the body.

An articulation is also know as a joint, the point of contact or connection between bones and cartilage.

The stability and integrity of all joints are maintained by ligaments,the dense fibrous strands of connective tissue that link together the bony segments.

The various joints can be classified into two general categories

the structure of the joints

the type of movement allowed by the joints

there are three major structural categories of joints: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial

Fibrous joints have no joint cavity (syndesmoses), very little space separates the ends of the bones.

In Cartilaginous joints (synchondroses), the bones are united by cartilage. No joint cavity exsists and little to no motion occurs, familar examples include the joints formed by the hyaline cartilages that connect the ribs to the sternum.

Most of the joints in the body are synovial joints, the joints all have space, or joint cavity, between the bones that form them. (diarthroses)

The movement of the synovial joints is limited only by the shapes of the bones of the joint and the soft tissues (ligaments, joint capsules, tendons, muscles) that surround the joint.

The four distinguishing features that set synovial joints apart from the rest of the body are

the ends of the bones in synovial jounts are covered with a thin layer of articular cartilage. this articular cartilage of synovial joints is hyaline cartilage, and although it covers the surfaces of the articulating bones, the hyaline cartilage do not attach the bones together.

all synovial joints are surroungded by an articularor joint capsule made of dense, fibrous connective tissue.

the inner surface of the joint capsule is lined with a thin synovial membrane. The primary function of this membrane is the secretion of synovial fluid

synovial fluid acts as a lubricant for the joint and provides nutrition to the articular cartilage.

In addition some synovial joints have articular disks called menisci (singular-meniscus) that are made of fibro-cartilage. This helps absorb shock, increase joint stability, aid in joint nutrition by directing the flow of synovial fluid, and increase the joint contact area, thereby decreasing pressure on the weight bearing structures,

A torn cartilage or meniscus, is one of the most common knee injuries in sports, is simply a tearing of one of the articular disks in a joint

The functional classification of joints is based on the degree and type of movement they allow.

Fibrous joints are classified as synarthroses "immovable joints"

Cartilaginous joints fall into amphiarthroses "slightly movable

Synovial joints also know as diarthrodial are freely movable joints...largest functional category of joints.

32.-44.

The four circular movements at some of the synovial joints
Rotation is the motion of a bone around a central axis and is described as being either internal or external rotation of the anterior surface of the bone involved. The femur at the hip joint and the humerous at the shoulder (glenhumeral) joint are among the most frequently rotated bones.

Supination and Pronation are motions in the transverse or horizontal plane.

Supination is a term that specifically describes the external rotation of the forearm, which causes the palm to face anteriorly.

Pronation describes the internal rotation of the forearm, which causes the radius to cross diagonally over the ulna and the palms to face posteriorly.

Circumduction is a sequential combination of flexion, abduction, extension and adduction. Similar to rotation, circumduction commly occurs at the hip and sholder joints, the fundamental movements are given specialized names to clarify their action.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
1. The anatomical system most affected by exercise is the muscular system.

There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and viseral.

Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle, that is it can be made to contract by conscious effort.

Cardiac tissue forms the walls of the heart and is involuntary by nature,

Visceral muscle is found in the walls of internal organs such as the stomach and the intestines and in the blood vessels. The contraction of viseral muscle also is involunary and thus not under concious control.

In some cases skeletal muscles are attached to bone by aponeurosis, a broad flat type of tendon. The wide flat insertion of the rectus abdominous is an excellent example of aponeurosis.

There are more than 600 muscles in the human body and are named according to
1. location
2. shape
3. action
4. number of divisions
5. bony attachments
6. size relationships

longus (long)
brevis (short)

P.49 The agonist muscle is contracting to achieve a desired movement.
The opposite resisting muscle is the antagonist.

Severval muscles help (combine) to perform the same anatomical function; these muscles are functionally known as synergists. For example the synergystic contractions of the gastrocnemius, soleus and six other muscles of the leg produce plantarflexion.

The major links of the lower body.
ankle joint formed by the distal tibia, distal fibula, and talus
knee joint composed of the tibiofemoral and patellofemoral joints;
hip joint linking the femur with the hip (coxal) bone.

Many muscles of the lower extremity cross two joints.

The four compartments of the lower leg.
1. anterior tibial compartment- contract to extend the toes and dorsiflex (flex) the ankle.
2. lateral tibial compartment- are known as the peroneals (peroneus longus and peroneus brevis)
3. superficial posterior compartment- the largest muscles of the calf (soleus and gastrocnemius)
4. deep posterior compartments (contains the popliteus, posterior tibialis, flexor hallucis longus, and the flexor digitorium longus.

The largest tendon of the body is the Achilles tendon found in the posterior compartment and attaches the gastrocnemius and soleus via one common tendon to the calcaneous (heel bone)

(pg. 50) What muscles attach to the knee joint? The muscles that cross the knee joint to act on the leg the tibia and the fibula can be divided into three separate groups.

The four major muscles on the front of the thigh help extend the leg.

Posteriorly three large muscles give shape to the buttocks and serve as powerful mobilizers of the hip joint.

The glutueus maximus, the largest and most superficial of the three extends and externally rotates the thigh. Underlying the gluteus maximus are the gluteus medius and the gluteus minimus, which combime to abduct and internally rotate the femur. Also on the posterior aspect of the thight are the hamstrings muscles (biceps femoris, semitendious, semimembranosus) , whose action is to extend the thigh.The muscle located on the medial aspect of the thigh are named for both their function and size, The adductor magnus, adductor longus and the adductor brevis work in concert to adduct the femur.

Muscles that act at the trunk...include only the major muscles associated with the spinal colum and the wall of the abdomen. Contraction of these muscles in their agonist/antagonit relationships, results primary in sagittal plane motion. (Flexion and extension of the trunk)

Three major muscles are responsible for movement of the vertebrae column:
the iliocostalis muscle
the longissimus
and the spinalis aka erector spinae
Each of the three muscles in this group has a subdivision name
There are three divisions of the iliocostalis muscle: the iliocostalis lumborum, iliocostialis thoracis, and iliocostalis cervicis.
In addition to extending the vertebral column, unilateral contraction of the ilicostalis muscle will produce lateral flexion to that side.
The walls of the abdominal cavity are supported entirely by the strength of the surronding muscles since there are no bones that provide support for this region.
To make up for this the three layers of muscles in the abdominal wall run in different directions.

In the outermost(superficial layer) is the external oblique muscle, with fibers running anteriorly downward and toward the midline.
In the second layer, the fibers of the internal oblique muscle run posteriorly and downward.
external obliques running in to front pockets
internal obliques running diagonally into the rear pockets.
Unilateral (one side) contraction of the lateral fibers of the obliques (external and internal) produces lateral flexion of the spinal column on that side.
Trunk rotation is produced by contraction of an external oblique and an internal ablique muscle on opposite sides.
Bilater (both sides) contraction of the external and internal obliques compresses the abdominal cavity; these muscles are commonly activated during forced exhalation, defecation, and urination.
The deepest muscle in the abdominal wall lies within the transverse abdominis muscle. The fibers of this thin muscle run horizontially, encircling the abdominal cavity. contraction compresses the abdomen.
The rectus abdominus is a narrow flat muscle on the anterior aspect of the abdominal wall that flexes the vertebral column; the fibers run vertically from the pubis to the rib cage. The rectus abdominus is crossed by three transverse fibrous bands called the tendinous insrciptions.
The origins, insertions, primar functions and examples of exercises to develope the muscles that act as the trunk.

The muscles of the upper extremity
the wrist joint is composed of the distal radius, ulna , and poximal carpal bones.

The flexor-pronator muscles originate on the medial epicondyle of the humerus, and cause flexion of the wrist and pronation of the forearm( radius and ulna). The major wrist flexors include the flexor carpi radialis.

The major pronation of the forearm are the pronator quadratus at the wrist. The antagonist muscles to the flexor-pronators are the extensor-supinator that arise from a common tendon on the lateral humeral epicodyle and as there names indicate, cause extension of the wrist and supination of the forearm. The major wrist extensors are the extensor carpi radialis longus and the extensor carpi ulnaris. Simplty enough the supinator muscle (with help from the biceps and the brachii) is responsible for supination of the forearm.

The elbow joint (ulnohumeral) produce motion of the forearm....formed by the union of the olecranon process of the ulna and the distal humerus. This is a hinge joint and permits motion in only one plane, the sagittal plane flexion and extension. The flexors at the elbow include the biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis, are located on the anterior aspect of the arm.

The triceps brachii is the major extensor of the elbow joint is located on the posterior aspect of the arm.
Triceps have three heads or origins:one on the scapula and two on the proximal humerous. All three heads converge and insert, via a common tendon into the olecranon process of the ulna.

The shoulder joint consists of the proximal humerus, and the glenoid fossa of the scapula and the scapulothoracic articulation. The connection betweeen the scalpula and the thorax is not a bony joint, but more of important functional, soft tissue. (muscle and facia) link between the scalpula and trunk.

Muscles that act at the shoulder joint (glenohumeral) joint is the most mobile joint in the body. We will concern ourselves here with only the 9 muscles that cross the shoulder. The two largest muscles the pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi have their origins on the thorax. The pectoralis major has several important functions at the shoulder: flexion in the sagittal plane , and internal rotation in the transverse plane. The latisimus dorsi arises posteriorly from the pelvis and the lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae

Exercise Physiology Chapter 1

2009-06-13T21:15:00.000-07:00

Chapter 1: Exercise Physiology

Physiology- the study of the myriad of functions in a living organism.

Exercise physiology- study of the ways cells and tissues of the body function during exercise

Why study physiology?- to be familiar at how the body functions at rest also how it responds and adapts to many different exercises.

What is optimum fitness? The condition resulting from a lifestyle that leads to the development of an optimum level of Cardiovascular Endurance, Muscular Strength, and Flexibility. Achievement of maintaining and maintenance of ideal body weight.

1. Cardiorespiratory fitness: refers to aerobic fitness, describes the ability of the (heart, lungs, blood vessels) to deliver an adequate supply of oxygen to exercising muscles.

2. Muscular Strength: the maximum amount of force a muscle or muscular group can develop during a single contraction.

3. Muscular Endurance: is the number of repeated contractions a muscle or muscle group can perform against a resistance without fatiguing, or the lenght of time a contraction can be held without fatigue.

4. Flexibility: the amount of movement that can be accomplished at a joint (an articulation), such as the knee or shoulder, and is usually referred to "as the range of motion about a joint".
reduce injury and improve performance.

5. Body Composition: two dimensions...1. body fat(adipose tissue) stored in triglycerides 2. fat free weight (muscle, bones, blood, organs)

fit woman: 21-24%
fit man: 14-17% body fat percentages

6. Why do we have fitness testing? to establish a baseline against which improvements can be measured over time...field tests 1.5 mile run\walk

Physiology of the cardiopulmonary (cardiovascular) system
1.The cardiovascular system is composed of transport network in the body. Blood serves as the vehicle to carry gases (oxygen) and nutrients (such as fats, amino acids and glucose) from where they are taken into the body to the cells where they are needed. Blood picks up the byproducts such as lactic acid and carbon dioxide from where they are made and carries them to where they can be expelled or metabolized.

2.Vascular: arteries, veins and capillaries

Arteries- carry blood with fresh oxygen away from the heart

Exception pulmonary arteries have low (O2) pulmonary veins high (O2)

Capillaries- narrow thin-walled vessels across which the exchange of gases, nutrients, and cellular waste products occurs between the blood and the cells of the body.

Veins: after passing through the capillaries the blood enters the veins.

3. four separate chambers in the heart: upper atrium and lower ventricles

4.When the heart muscle contracts, the right ventricle squeezes against the volume of the blood that has filled into the chamber and sends this blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. In the lungs the blood picks up fresh oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide in the pulmonary capillaries. Freshly oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins then flows to the left ventricle. While the right ventricle contracts, the left ventricle contracts. and pumps blood in its chamber through the largest artery in the body the aorta delivered to the rest of the body.
hemoglobin carries oxygen into the red blood cells
two circulatory patterns: one is the pulmonary circulation.....from the heart to the lungs and back
systemic circulation....the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body

7. The two phases of the cardic cycle are systole and diastole
systole contraction of the cardiac cycle
diastole refers to the relaxation phase

8. during diastole (rest) the heart muscle is supplied with it's oxygenated blood flow through the coronary arteries.

9. The benefits of having a high level of cardiopulmonary fitness is that the heart spends more time resting in diastole than when the body is poorly trained.

10. Cardiac output is (Q) the amount of blood that flows from each ventricle in one minute....output from the left and right ventricles are the same. Blood from the LEFT ventricle is ejected with greater force

Cardiac output is a product of two factors. One is heart rate (HR), the number of times the heart beats per minute, the other is stroke volume

Stroke Volume (SV) the amount of blood pumped from each ventricle each time the heart beats measured in mL

One gallon of blood per minute.

Ejection Fraction the percentage of the total volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole that subsequently ejected during contraction.

Exercise the cardiovascular primary purpose is to deliver oxygen and other nutrients to the exercising muscle cells and to carry away waste products away from the muscles.

Another critically important factor esp. in exercise performance, is the amount of oxygen taken from the hemoglobin (occurs in the capillaries of the muscles.) and subsequently used in exercising muscle cells. Called Oxygen Extraction.

ENERGY PRODUCTION in the cells

the energy used to drive the contraction of a muscle fiber from a special substance in the cell is called ATP adenosine triphosphate.

The three distinct chemical reactions or biochemical pathways by which the muscles cells replenish ATP are the aerobic system, anaerobic glycolysis, and the creatine phosphate system.

Aerobic means with oxygen- first system to produce ATP.

Mitochodria-structure and site of aerobic energy (ATP) production

5. Anaerobic glycosis and the creatine phosphate system are the primary sources of ATP when an inadequate supply of oxygen is available to the cell to meet the energy needs.

lifting heavy weights the body relies of the anaerobic "without oxygen"occurs within the cell but outside of the mitrochondria

Ischemia is the insufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscle

Angeia Pectoris results from decreased oxygen flow to the heart and is the sensation of pain and or pressure in the chest.

A myocardial infraction is also called a heart attack occurs when oxygen supply is cut off. This happens when a blood clot forms where the coronary artery has become clogged, the area of the heart muscle (myocardium) beyond the blockage suffers (heart attack)

What can lead to a brain stroke?
In the brain ischemia (lack of oxygen) can lead to a stroke.

What are the two substances that the body uses to produce most of the ATP supply?
Fat (fatty acids) and carbohydrates (glucose) are the two substances to produce most of the ATP

What is the anaerobic threshold?
The intensity at which adequate oxygen is unavailable. This corresponds to the upper limit of sustainable aerobic exercise and generally occurs in the range of 50-85% of maximum effort.

What is glycogen and where is it stored?
the primary source of anarobic ATP production is glucose, which is carried in the blood and also is stored in muscles and the liver

A second source of anaerobic ATP production is creatine phosphate, a molecule that can be quickly broken apart to help produce the ATP.

A kilocalorie (kcal) is the amount of heat that will raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree centigrade.

When is lactic acid produced?
Lactic acid is produced anaerobically and is the byproduct of ATP production.

What is VO2 max?- the total capacity to consume oxygen at the celluar level. aka maximal oxygen consumption.
This depends on two factors...
1. the delivery of oxygen to the working muscle by the blood or cardiac output.
2. the ability to extract oxygen from the blood at the capillaries and use it in the mitochondria.

MET is aka metabolic equivalent, or 1 MET physicans describe activities in terms of MET
(high or low impact) volley ball low met 3-6 while step aerobics is 6-10 METS.

Cardiovascular\ Cardiopulmonary responses to exercise
1. vasodialation an increase in diameter, in the arterial vessels that supply blood to the exercising muscles
Vasoconstriction the decrease in diameter of the vessels that supply blood to the abdominal area

2. How does blood pressure change with exercise?
Blood pressure changes in a result to exercise to the amount of pressure generated by the contraction of the left ventricle. (SBP ) Systolic blood pressure provides the force that propels blood through the system.

Diastolic blood pressure represents the amount of pressure left in the system when the heart muscle relaxs between beats. Changes occur to attempt to deliver more oxygen.

Changes in Cardiac Output in response to aerobic training include decrease in resting heart rate, in part because the interior dimensions of the ventricles can hold more blood, that is the ventricles can hold more blood as the heart gets larger inside, Since the ventricles can fill with a greater volume of blood during diastole, stroke volume at rest also increases.

increased stroke volume
and maximum cardiac output

Where doe the gas and nutrient exchange take place in the capillaries. One change with aerobic training is that new capillaries are produced in the active skeletal muscles, increasing the area for the exchange of oxygen, also significant increase in mitochondrial density, which means more of the muscle cell is occupied by mitochodria

Changes in oxygen extraction occur is that the new capillaries are produced in the active skeletal muscles, increasing the area for the exchange of oxygen. The other maj0r change in the response to aerobic training is a significant increase in the mitochodria density, more of the muscle cell is occupied with mitochondria the site of aerobic ATP production.

The body also uses more fatty acids for ATP production at any submaximal exercise, the body stores more glycogen in trained muscles and produces less lactic acid, both lead to improved endurance.

Guidelines for cardiovascular fitness
The overload principle means to train on of the body's systems, such as the cardiuopulmonary system or the skeletal muscle system to work harder than it is accustomed to working.
The overload to cause significant improvement in the cardiovascular sustem is an increased venous return.

To maximise overload follows four rules.
1. exexcise should be the correct type
2. be done at proper intensity
3. be of sufficient duration
4. occur with adequate frequency

The principal of specificity of training....for maximum effectiveness, aerobic exercises need to be rhythmic and continuous and involve the large muscle groups.
Generally the hip flexors ( iliopsoas, rectus femoris) and the extensors (gluteus maximus, hamstrings) and the knee flexors ( hamstrings) and extensors (quadriceps)

Rhythmic large muscle movements are essential for an effective increase in blood flow back to the heart. The rythmic squeezing action of the large muscles against the veins within them is called the "muscle pump" This muscle pump leads to a significant increase in venous return, which is required for effective aerobic conditioning.

60-90% maxium heart rate is recommended for general fitness improvements. 50-85 max. O2 consumption
Monitoring a target heart rate provides an excellent indication of correct exercise intensity. The talk test utilizes the hyperventilation response to monitor intensity.

Hyperventalation during exercise is normally accompanied by a burning sensation in active muscles because of lactic acid accumulation.

Another way to monitor intensity is to use the Borg's Rating of Percieved Exterion (RPE)
Clients can use this scale as a subjective way of measuring how hard they are exercising
For most people exercising at a moderate to hard level (12-15 on the 6-20 scale, or 3-5 on the 0-10 scale

The third rule is that an aerobic exercise should last for a minmum for 10 minutes per session with a goal of at least 20 minutes.

If the intensity is increased the duration can be decreased to elicit the same response.

The two types of interval training are performance interval training which is a very high-intensity effort designed to enhance competitive performance in a specific sport.

Fitness interval training, a modest-to-vigorous intensity effort designed to improve general fitness.

the fourth rule must be performed three days per week. more exercise faster results. It is also important to to allow adequate rest and recovery.

Why do we warm up and cool down? Are essential parts of any exercise session. warming up brings about important physiologic changes that reduce the risk of injury, as well as make the exercise session more comfortable.
first it causes an actual increase in the temperature of the muscle and connective tissue, there fore reducing the risk of soft tissues injury. Heart rate will quickly rise to near maximum in an attempt to supply adequate oxygen if the necessary three to five minutes are not performed, especially if an intense pace is attempted to soon. cool down to 18-20 beats per 10 seconds (108 to 120) to allow the system to reverse the blood shunt. reduce chances for fatigue.

Benefits of regular aerobic exercise include decreased appetite, the calories -burning effects of regular aerobic exercise allow for a substantial daily calorie intake,
to strenghten the skeletol system. less insulin is required for diabetics. To reduce the risk of coronary artery disease

HDL is high-density lipoprotein, or good cholesterol.

Altitude it takes about two weeks to acclimate significantly to altitudes up to 8,000 feet but can take up to four or five weeks to adjust to altitudes over 12,000.

Replenishing water is the main concern of exercising in heat and humidity....drink at least 7 to 10 ounces every 10 to 20 minutes during exercise. Drink 17-20 ounces two hours before exercise and another 16-24 ounces for every pound of body weight lost following exercise.

BASIC NEUROMUSCULAR ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
The three types of muscle cells in the body are cardiac cells found only in the heart, smooth muscle cells found in the walls of the arteries and in the walls of the intestines and allow for shunting of blood (the constriction and dialation in the blood vessels.) Skeletal muscle cells are bound together to form skeletal muscles.

Two promary types of muscle fibers are the slow-twitch Type 1 fibers also called slow-oxidative have a smaller cross-section thand fast-twitch fibers. Have a dark appearance because of the rich blood supply.

FAst twitch Type 11 fibes are more white in color and do not have much aeorbic capacity.

Myofibrils are proteins that run the lenght of each muscle fiber. These proteins include Actin and Myosin, also know as the contactile proteins. THese are the two primary proteins related to the process of muscle contraction.

Sarcomeres several repeating units along the length of a muscle cell. Each sarcomere is surrounded by a membrane called the sarcolemma and a gelatine-like tissue called the sarcoplasm.

The sliding filament theory...for muscle contraction to occur, there must be sufficient ATP near the actin and the myosin proteins and there must be a nervous impulse from the central nervous system. When these two factors are present, the tiny projections from the myosin heads attach to the actin, forming a actin-myosin bridge.

The three types of muscle contraction
concentric (positive) contraction shortens the muscle
eccentric (negative) contraction lengthens the muscle
Isometric contraction describes a contraction of individual fibers by no change in the lenght of the whole muscle.

The amount of force that is generated during contraction of the whole muscle depends on two factors: the size of the individual fibers contracting. ( a larger fiber is a stronger fiber) 2. the number of muscle fiber that contract simultaneously ( to generate more force, more fibers are recruited) hint size and #

The "length-tension relationship demonstrates that a muscle generates maximum force when it begins its contraction at 1.2 times its resting length. This explains why athletes such as baseball players and golfers slightly strecth the appropriate muscles before begining the swinging movement.

What is the motor unit? Motor units in a given muscle are stimulated in units or groups. A single motor nerve (from the spinal cord) and all the muscle fibers it stimulate

Force of Contraction (Strenght) When a muscle fiber contracts, it exerts force. Skeletal muscle tissue functions according to the all-or-none principle. This means that when a single muscle fiber shortens, it generates its maximum force capacity.

ADAPTIONS TO STRENGHT TRAINING

What is the all or none principle?Force of contraction (strength)Skeletal muscle tissue functions according to an all-or-none principle. This means that when a single muscle fiber shortens, it generates its maximum force capacity. A skeletal muscle fiber has no inherent ability to grade its force of contraction (as the cardiac muscle cells do)

Some variables that influence strength training include the relationship of resistance and repetitions, the distribution of fast and slow twitch muscle fibers in the muscles being trained, and the levels of the hormone testosterone.

Hypertrophy is an increase in the number and size of myofibrils inside muscle fibers. It is an increased amount of actin, myosin, and related proteins that are responsible for force generation. Greater muscle size is because men are capable of greater absolute strenght than most women.

Reps and Resistancethe use of extremely high resistance might possibly increase the number of muscle fibers (hyperplasia) in the muscle. rapid regenesis of cells leading to extra gaps. evidence in humans is lacking.

Three basic types of connective tissue include: C.L.T.
cartilage-which serves as padding between the bones that meet at a joint in the skeleton
ligaments-connect bones to bones at a joint
tendons- connect skeletal muscles to the bones, transmitting the force of muscle contraction to the bones.The tendons are an extension of the tendinous connective tissue, which weaves a network of support around and between the muscle fibers of a muscle, giving strength and stability to the belly of the muscle by holding the fibers of the motor units together.

An important adaptation to strength training is the stimulation of motor units that were previously inactive. Part of the strength generation depends on the number of motor units contracting. When untrained some motor units are never used. One of the most important adaptations to strength training is that we can overcome, or decrease, nervous inhibition to the muscles, Nervous inhibition is both psychological and physiological. In a psychological sense, confidence increases, allowing lifts never before that possible to occur. Physiological (functional) adaptation is also important.

In the tendons, which connect the muscle to the bones, there is a sensor called a muscle tendon organ or a Golgi tendon organ. This tendon organ is part of the nervous system,a protection against generating too much contractile force, and its associated muscle will relax to prevent injury to the muscle itself or to its associated connective tissues

It is possible to override physiological Golgi protective inhibition. Fear and extreme strenght training crossing the threshold protection.

Guidelines for strength training.
Isometric (same length) refers to exercises that develop high-intensity contractions in the muscle with no change in muscle lenght. immovable objects like a wall.

Isotonic (same tone or tension) refers to exercise that use a given amount of external resistance that is challenged trough the entire range of motion. The tension in the muscle is not constant throughout the range of motion. The actual amount of force generated by a muscle will change throughout the movement because of the biomechanics at the joint or joints invovled.

Dynamic constant external resistance- strength training using a fixed amount of external resistance, not isotonic
Dynamic variable external resistance- the weight is constant throughout the movement, the amount of force generated be the overloaded muscles changes throughout the movement.

Isokinetic (same speed) refers to a type of resistance exercise that causes the exercising muscles to generate a maximum amount of force throughout the entire range of movement, while keeping the speed of movement constant.

Isokinetic and dynamic resistance exercises are performed with either concentric or eccentric muscle contractions, or both. Isometric (same lenght)Concentric (shortening) movements viewed as positive aspect of the lift while eccentric (lenghthing movements) are reffered to as the negative phase.

Two types of muscle soreness...One is immediate felt while, or immediately after exercising. The other type of soreness is felt one to three days after a session.Immediate soreness appears to be most often related to the accumilation of lactic acid (and other byproducts) in the muscle cells and stimulated sensitive nerve ending near them. This excess of lactic acid is moved quite rapidly generally within 30-60 minutes. Much of the lactic acid is carried to liver where it is metabolized.

Latent soreness unnoticed during exercise but is present 1-3 days following is subject to much research and controversy. Available research indicates that delayed onset muscle soreness, or DOMS is most likely the result of very small tears in the connective tissus that hold individual muscle fibers together.

Muscle fatigue is fatigue felt when performing a power event or other maximum effort that lasts form 0-30 seconds to exhaustion occurs because the active muscle cells run out of ATP at the site of the actin-myosin crossbridge, which is part of the mechanism of muscle fiber contraction.What is glycogen...The storage of glucose in the muscle cells. With prolonged exercise lasting 60-180 miunutes or longer when glycogen is depleted a marathoner calls this "hitting the wall"Another factor implicate in fatigue during prolonged activities include dehydration, increased body temperature, by-products other than lactic acid, and boredom with the activity.

FLXIBILITY TRAINING
Flexibilty is defined as the range of motion about a joint. Flexibility training is designed to increase the range of motion in a specific area such as the low back, the hamstrings or the sholder gridle.

Four factors can limit flexibility
1. the elastic limits of the ligaments and tendons crossing the joint
2. the elasticity of the muscle tissue itself
3. the bone and joint structure
4. the skin

Many types of exercise can increase flexibility. Every sytem must be overloaded to generate specific gains, so must the connective and skeletal muscle be overloaded to generate increased flexibility.
The safest overload for flexiblity is a slow, sustained stretch. Bouncing and bobbing activities are not recommended. They can lead to injury in the muscle tissues. Slow stretch until to where the point of tension can be felt. Hold the stretch for about 15 seconds while holding the breath.

Fibers in the muscle tissue protect against too much stretch. These fibers are called the muscle spindles, slow streching does not stimulate the muscle spindles to quickly. Ballistic strechting the muscle spindle is likely stimulated, causing the muscle to contract as a protection against the excessive stretch.